Sigmund Freud s Five Lectures On Psychoanalysis

In Sigmund Freud’s â€Å"Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis,† he introduces theories regarding repressed memories as a source for mental disturbances and methods of retrieving these memories. Freud introduces techniques such as dream interpretation, word association, and hypnosis as methods for treating symptoms of mental disturbances; it is for these discoveries that Sigmund Freud is considered the father of psychoanalysis. According to neuropsychologist Paul Broks, â€Å"Freud might also be considered one of the founders of neuropsychology† (Broks 1). In Paul Broks’ essay â€Å"The Ego Trip: Denial, Defense Mechanisms, Repression,† Broks states that he believe that because many of Freud’s theories have been disproven by modern technology and other†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"They cannot escape from the past and neglect present reality in its favor† (CP 73). Not everyone can walk past the monuments. Freud is held most famous for introducing psychoanalysis as a method of mental health treatment. Psychoanalysis is a psychological theory that investigates the conscious and subconscious minds with the goal of treating mental disturbances. Psychoanalysis essentially retrieves a patient’s repressed feelings and fears to the surface with techniques such as hypnosis, word association, dream interpretation, and hesitations and fumbles. Although Freud was not originally a fan of hypnosis, it was theorized to be an effective of way of channeling the subconscious mind. Word associations are the first things that come into mind. It goes straight through the id, so there is no time to channel the ego or superego. In other words, when someone says the first word that goes through their mind, it gives Freud a way to see into their subconscious mind and discover the trauma that the patient may have experienced. The patient does not have the opportunity to over think about what he is sayin g. According to Freud, dreams arouse feelings that are disguised and the unconscious mind can be investigated by tracking and interpreting dreams. An example of a hesitation or fumble is a Freudian slip, which is when someoneShow MoreRelatedSigmund Freud And Its Impact On 20th Century Ego Psychology Essay1518 Words   |  7 Pages Sigmund Freud, Psychoanalysis and the impact on 20th Century Ego Psychology Meghan Laubengeyer Temple University Psychologist, psychoanalyst, doctor of medicine, and author, Sigmund Freud’s contributions to the world of science and psychology were far from limited. The self and widely regarded scientist was born in Friedberg in 1856 where he lived before moving to Vienna, Germany, where he would later produce founding revelations at the birth of psychology as a scienceRead MoreAnalysis Of Holden Uses Defense Mechanisms1157 Words   |  5 Pagesconvinces Holden to buy some time with a prostitute, steals five bucks from Holden, and punches him. Instead of admitting his vulnerability, Holden states, â€Å"I pictured myself coming out of the goddam bathroom, dressed and all, with my automatic in my pocket...What’d I do, I’d walk down a few floors-holding onto my guts, blood leaking all over the place-and then I’d ring the elevator bell. As soon as old Maurice opened the doors, he’d see me...and he;s start screaming at me, in this very high-pitched, yellow-belly Read MoreHolden Uses Defense Mechanisms1372 Words   |  6 Pagesconvinces Holden to buy some time with a prostitute, steals five bucks from Holden, and punches him. Instead of admitting his vulnerability, Holden states, â€Å"I pictured myself coming out of the goddam bathroom, dressed and all, with my automatic in my pocket...What’d I do, I’d walk down a few floors-holding onto my guts, blood leaking all over the place-and then I’d ring the elevator bell. As soon as old Maurice opened the doors, he’d see me...and he;s start screaming at me, in this very high-pitched, yellow-bellyRead MoreSigmund Freud And Erik Erikson1110 Words   |  5 PagesThe contributions to this perspective include both Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. Freud examined psychosexual theory and how those first childhood years of drives shape the personality. Thus, such drive names are the id, ego, and superego. The id emergences in the early stages of infancy, between 3 to 6 years o f age the superego or conscience appears and are shaped by parents and conforms to society’s expectations. Moreover, Freud (1938;1973) five stages of too much or to the less parental satisfactionRead MoreSigmund Freud s The Bluest Eye Essay1328 Words   |  6 Pagestheir mind? Inspired by his influential, Sigmund Freud observed and researched about human mind and behaviors. He examined hysterical patients and tried to treat them in various ways. There are causes and reasons for every act of human beings. There are so many thoughts going on in people’s mind that you would not know until they tell you. Eventually, Freud came up with psychoanalytic theory and explained it thoroughly in â€Å"Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis.† Freud’s theory has influenced many writerRead MoreInvisible Man11097 Words   |  45 Pagesour planet is the mental institution of the universe. Despite the hyperbolic nature of Goethe s statement, it holds some truth. Because of this element of truth, society looks to psychoanalysis as an important tool for understanding human nature. Furthermore, psychoanalytic criticism of authors, characters, and readers has a place in literary criticism that is as important as the place of psychoanalysis in society. This is because of the mimetic nature of much of modern literature. In fact, the psychoanalystRead MoreEssay about Three Main Approaches in Counseling Psychology2501 Words   |  11 Pagestherapeutic relationship versus the importance of techniques in bringing about positive change in the client (Relation ship) between Clint the therapist .Therapy Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was an Austrian physician In 1900 he was both the medical doctor(nurologist) and philosopher, Fraud who was founder of the study of psychoanalysis also known as the study of the unconscious mind A key assumption of the psychoanalytic theory is that much of human behaviour is determined by unconscious thoughtsRead MoreThe Application Of Psychological Perspectives Essay1397 Words   |  6 PagesHumanist School, the Cognitive School, the Ecological School etc. However, I will discuss the similarities and differences between the Psychodynamic School, of Psychology and the Behaviourist School of Psychology. I will include such psychologists as Sigmund Freud and Eric Erikson in my discussion of the psychodynamic school and physiologist Ivan Pavlov and psychologist John B. Watson in my discussion of the behaviourists school. In studying these two differing schools, I found similarities including theRead MoreKaren Horney : Pioneer Of Feminine Psychology By Susan Tyler Hitchcock3647 Words   |  15 PagesKaren Horney was inspired mainly by the renowned Dr. Sigmund Freud,unlike many of the professors at Berlin’s medical school, . Many of the professors Horney had thought that Freud and his tactics were hocus pocus. Horney thought Freudian approach was intriguing. Although it was not well known about her fascination with the new approach, she pursued traditional studies by day and in the evening she would study Freud. She delved into psychoanalysis, which at the time was more of a revolutionary ideaRead MoreDr. Sigmund Freud s Theory Essay1662 Words   |  7 Pagespsychology classes. Until my graduate level class I had no idea that there was more to Dr. Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) thoughts and theories. In my mind Freud was the reason for victim blaming in today’s culture and help ed contribute to the systematic sexism that women face in today’s society; I even wrote about that in my response to some of his readings that he was the cause of all evil in the world essentially. While Freud is the cause for a lot of these ideas, and he was a sexist, he is not the perpetrator

Song of Myself by Walt Whitman Essay - 1343 Words

In his first anthology of poems entitled â€Å"Song of Myself†, Walt Whitman reveals some of his views on democracy through the use of symbolism and free verse poetry. His use of symbolism and free verse poetry creates indeterminacy, giving the reader hints rather than answers about the nature of the poem. In the sixth part of â€Å"Song of Myself†, a child asks the narrator of the poem, â€Å"What is the grass?† (Whitman). Instead of simply giving an answer, the narrator cannot make up his mind, and stumbles on how to explain the grass to the child. Through the use of specific symbolisms, Whitman, as the narrator, explicates his views while remaining under the faà §ade of explaining grass to the child. The views Whitman conveys remain indeterminate and†¦show more content†¦By using metaphors to analogize grass with democracy, grass becomes a symbol for democracy allowing Whitman to convey his opinions on democracy by speaking bluntly about how he fee ls about the grass. Along with the use of metaphors, the form of the poem plays an important role in uncovering the views of Whitman. First and foremost, this poem was written in free verse which is a form of poetry that lacks structure. The free verse stucture of the poem is shown in the lack of form in the stanzas of the poem. Some stanzas are six lines long while others are only one, and the lines can be either concise or drawn out. The poem also lacks any apparent rhyming scheme or rhythm. Unlike Shakespearean poetry, where the foot of the poem stays the same, the lack of any apparent structure to the poem leaves the reader unable to predict what is coming next. In addition to this, at the time this poem was written, free verse was not common. In fact, Whitman may have been one of the first poets to use this form, showing that he may have been rebelling against the predominant structured form in poetry. The lack of any apparent structure guides the reader towards the conclusion that Whitman did not like structure in poetry, and can even beShow MoreRelatedWalt Whitman Song of Myself1260 Words   |  6 PagesJanuary 20th, 2012 It’s Only Natural: Racial and Gender Equality in Walt Whitman’s â€Å"Song of Myself† In the opening line of Walt Whitman’s â€Å"Song of Myself,† it becomes immediately evident that his song is not about himself, but about the entire human race: â€Å"I celebrate myself, and sing myself, and what I assume you shall assume, / for every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you†. His poem extols the mundane aspects of everyday life that a traditional poet of his day would not have consideredRead MoreSong Of Myself By Walt Whitman1795 Words   |  8 Pageschemical also released during sex and eating. In his gutsy poem to America, Song of Myself, Walt Whitman uses repetition to make music that will bring pleasure to his readers and also shape how they perceive the world. Whitman begins his poem by boldly stating that he celebrates himself. Like the chorus to a song he repeats the word â€Å"I† throughout the entirety of the poem. The meaning of the word transitions from â€Å"I† being Whitman himself, to the people reading his book , and then ending with the readerRead MoreSong of Myself by Walt Whitman2251 Words   |  9 Pagesâ€Å"I celebrate myself, and sing myself / and what I shall assume you shall assume† (Whitman 1-2). These lines not only open up the beginning of one the best poems of the American Romantic period, but they also represent a prominent theme of one of this period’s best poet, Walt Whitman. In Walt Whitman’s Song of Myself, Whitman deals with his time period’s most prominent theme of democracy. Whitman tells readers that they must not only observe the democratic life but they must become one with it. AsRead MoreThe Song Of Myself By Walt Whitman And Howl1353 Words   |  6 PagesBoth â€Å"Song of Myself† by Walt Whitman and â€Å"Howl† by Allen Ginsberg are important pieces of American poetry. â€Å"Song of Myself† was written in the 1850’s and â€Å"Howl† was written about a century later. Both poets were part of groups th at wanted to change America – the Transcendentalists and the Beats. Transcendentalists believed in the goodness of people and nature. They believe that people are at their best when they are truly independent. The Beats rejected standard values and materialism. They experimentedRead MoreAnalysis Of Song Of Myself By Walt Whitman1451 Words   |  6 Pagesself-wisdom, discovery and betterment – is the ground-breaking poet, Walt Whitman. In his poetry, Whitman explores the surreal and cosmic, relating the supernatural to the mundane .With an emphasis on oneness with nature, Whitman’s celebratory attitude of the human soul in all of its complexity, beauty, and contradictions is most noted in his extensive poem titled â€Å"Song of Myself†, and is developed further in his poem â€Å"Kosmos†. Moreover, Whitman pioneers the future of modern poetry while incorporating hisRead MoreSong of Myself by Walt Whitman903 Words   |  4 Pagesultimate threat to the United States at the time, Whitman wished to mend Americas social and political demands through his poetry. Throughout Whitman’s works, the reader can evidently observe the widths and basis of his social and political philosophy and the layers of various circumstances that exist within his American culture – which is an essential part of his democratic vision. Many of Whitmans poems, including major works such as Song of Myself, can be studied with this tidbit, but yet theseRead MoreWalt Whitman s Song Of Myself1191 Words   |  5 Pages Walt Whitman’s â€Å"Song of Myself† Walt Whitman was an American poet born in May 31, 1819 in New York, and he died in March 26, 1892 in New Jersey. He grew up going to school in separate facilities from people of color, so he was growing up along with the nation. He was self-taught by exploring things for himself, for example, going to the museums when he could. Whitman as a young boy alternated from being in the city to being in the countryside with his grandparents. He was exposed to be beingRead MoreWalt Whitman - Song of Myself822 Words   |  4 PagesWalt Whitman has neither related his biography nor glorified himself in the poem as the title suggests. Infact, the apparent indication of the title is here of no importance. The poem is the song of celebration of every object of nature in general where a question put to the poet by a little child triggers off a philosophical trend of thought relating to death and the meaning of death. In the poem, he has celebrated his own idea (that nothing collapses due to death but instead life moves on) andRead MoreAnalysis Of Walt Whitman s Song Of Myself1178 Words   |  5 Pagesa Poem Using the Same Ideas from Another Person The idea that the artist is a single individual coming to stand and speak for the masses is one of Emerson’s main transcendentalist ideas. Walt Whitman met Emerson’s ideal artist description as he spoke as one man for the multitude in his poem, â€Å"Song of Myself†, which openly demonstrates Whitman’s faith in the imperative indivisibility of self-reliance. He shares many of the same ideas as Emerson, such as the importance of the self and views on religionRead MoreAnalysis Of Walt Whitman s Song Of Myself Essay2414 Words   |  10 Pages The prevalence of Hegelianism in Walt Whitman’s â€Å"Song of Myself† is indisputable, yet a consensus on the meaning remains elusive, and therefore, insidious to the democratic progress Whitman attempts. Whitman uses Hegel to support his ideas about the dialectical theory of consciousness, the spiritualization and importance of art, and America’s manifest destiny. I later elucidate on these catego ries and break them down into more precise ideas. I use a variety of scholars for evidence of structural

Tyson Foods Synopis and Mission Statement free essay sample

Tyson Foods Synopis and Mission Statement BY ss834510 Tyson Foods, Inc. Synopsis Statistics show that the world population is expected to reach 9. 2 billion by 2050. With a drastic increase in inhabitants on Earth, demand for food will also significantly increase. Thus, agriculture is on the forefront to fulfill this need. Tyson Foods is already on the Fortune 500 as the second largest food manufacturing corporation and is also on the SP 500. This company produces and packages a large selection of beef, poultry, and pork products that provide convenience to its consumers. These products are then sold to food retailers throughout the United States and in over 90 countries around the world. While producing and packaging food ties into making a profit, Tyson Foods takes large strides to insure its consumers of its quality food products. The companys Food Wise program educates its consumers on how to prepare food properly, establishes labeling and tracking systems, and helps to sponsor the National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation and the Food Marketing Institute Foundation. We will write a custom essay sample on Tyson Foods Synopis and Mission Statement or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Furthermore, Tyson extends itself through umanitarian efforts to help with hunger and disaster relief. Since 2000, the company has donated over 50 million pounds of its products to help those in need. Moreover, Tyson promotes environmental stewardship by implementing an environmental management system to all of its domestic processing plants, encouraging natural farming techniques, presenting awards to the beef, pork, and poultry producers who have exhibited outstanding environmental conservation, and acting on water and greenhouse gas concerns. History of the Company Tyson Foods was founded in 1935 and is headquartered in Springdale, Arkansas. In the early 1930s John Tyson hauled his first load of chickens to Chicago and sold them for a profit of $235. Tyson foods was already starting to vertically integrate in the late 1930s when John Tyson bought a hatchery and built a feed mill. In 1947, Tyson became a corporate company, which was named Tyson Feed and Hatchery. Tyson now sold baby chicks and feed and transported poultry to markets. Don Tyson left college and began running the company as general manager in 1952. During the 50s, disease and changing markets left the industry unpredictable. Tyson overcame he market, and annual sales reached $1 million with the hatchery producing 12,000 chicks per week. Tyson built his first processing plant in Springdale for $90,000 in 1957. In 1961, cost exceeded broiler prices for eight and a half months, so they entered the commercial egg business. Tyson Feed and Hatchery went public selling 100,000 shares of stock for $10. 50 per share and changing their name to Tyson Foods in 1963. Tyson Foods purchased Garrett Poultry Company in Rogers, Arkansas, and decided to use an expand or expire strategy. In 1966, Don became President of the company. The following year John and his wife were killed in a car accident in Springdale. Tyson Foods made the Fortune 1000 with $72 million in sales and and was the nations largest pork producer by 1979. Tyson Foods, Inc. made several acquisitions to grow the company; by 1982 it made the Fortune 500 list. Tyson purchased Holly Farms in 1989, doubling in size with $2. 5 billion in sales and now processing beef and pork. Tyson acquired two seafood companies in 1992 and three years later bought both of Cargills broiler operations and McCarty Farms, Inc. Tyson acquired several companies throughout the rest of the 90s. Tyson Foods Inc. turned 65 years old and made John Tyson CEO of the company in 2000. One year later Tyson Foods became the largest processor of beef, pork and chicken at the time because of the acquisition of IBP. Mission and Vision Statement Tysons mission states, Our mission is to produce and market trusted quality food products that fit todays changing lifestyles and to attract, reward, and retain the best people in the food industry. This statement tells the investors and consumers that Tyson is aiming to provide consumers with what they need and want while using high standards to insure safe products. The company also strives to employee only the best people who will be dependable, trustworthy, knowledgeable, and reliable enough to make the best decisions for the business. Our vision is to be the worlds first choice for protein solutions while maximizing shareholder value, living our Core Values and fostering a fun place to work. Tysons vision clearly states that they want to be the number one food processing company in the world. The company hopes to expand their services and market even further; thus, profit would also be expected to increase which would in turn increase hareholder wealth. The Core Values emphasizes the importance of diverse, honorable people; environmental stewardship; and consistent profits for shareholders that are achieved with integrity, dependability, and respect to one another. Tyson Foods focuses on four major strategies in order to achieve their goals. First, new industry demanded food products must be created. This will give Tyson a strong competitive advantage in the food processing industry. Second, each of the three protein areas is expected to be expanded and the margins closely upervised for the assurance of continued profits and success.

Health Sciences Radiolabeld DNA

Question: Discuss about the Health Sciences for Radiolabeld DNA. Answer: Introduction Two research groups independently developed In situ hybridization (ISH). The 28S RNA or Radiolabeld DNA was hybridized to cytological preparations from the oocytes of Xenopus and was detected through microautoradiography. The examination of nucleic acid sequences inside the cells has been allowed by this technique and it had not altered the morphology or integrity of the cell and its different components. Since then, the modification of ISH has been done for studying the evolution of chromosomes, chromosomal analysis of leukaemias and tumors together with the cytogenetic studies of a large number of species. Drs. Nielsen, Egoholm, Buchardt and Berg carried out the discovery of Peptide Nucleic Acid (PNA) for the first time in the year 1991. PNA consists of a polyamide backbone i.e. the nucleobases that are modified and have extraordinary physical, biological and chemical properties like higher binding affinity, exceptional biological stability, blocking enzyme function, better specifi city, a probe for hybridization, cellular uptake, molecular diagnostics, labelling of plasmids with diverse kinds of fluorescent molecules and several other applications in the field of biomedical sciences. The potential applications of PNA include supramolecular nanostructure, antisense technology, nanoelectrical system, antisense technology and DNA computing. It also has nanomedical applications together with drug delivery and diagnostics for treating the microbial infections as well as diseases. In addition, the knowledge and understanding regarding the biological processes like protein synthesis and gene expression not only helps in the development of the procedures related to medical diagnostics, but are also useful in the medical treatment through the introduction of gene and antisense therapy (1). PNA has properties such as high sensitivity, high binding affinity and high specificities that have been explored in the PNA array that leads to the formation of a duplex of PNA/DNA because of the electrically neutral property of the oligomers of PNA. These strong duplexes of PNA/DNA bring about higher melting temperature (2). PNA probes possess high biological stability and are resistant to degradation by enzymes due to the presence of a backbone of N(2aminoethyl)glycine, which is not recognized by the proteases and nucleases. Since the enzymes cannot degrade the probes of PNA, the shelf life of of these probes is significantly long over years even at room temperature (3). Peptide Nucleic Acids have different applications based on its distinctive biophysical properties and have drawn the attention of molecular biologists, biochemists, chemists, material engineers, biotechnologists and material engineers for the development of genetic diagnostics, gene therapeutic drugs, identification of viral or bacterial contaminants in biological samples, as probes for FISH, microarray technology and DNA biosensors (4). The exceptional physicochemical properties of of PNA molecules, facilitates the development of assays that are uncomplicated and robust in several areas of biology together with molecular genetics, virology, microbiology, cytogenetics, and parasitology because of the chemical modifications that are new to the original backbone of PNA. This kind of modification may add to enhance PNAs potentialities for new applications in diagnostics and research like analysis of chromosome, analysis of point mutation, mycology, bacteriology, human pathology, and potential use in the form of therapeutic agents (5). The probes of PNA also provide an exceptional opportunity for specifically identifying microorganisms in the specimens of pathology, together with paraffin embedded and formalin fixed material. This particular technology associates pathology and clinical microbiology, provides a new format for testing, and opens the door to additional applications of test in clinical laboratory. The probe of PNA combines the simplicity with specificity and sensitivity of molecular technologies. This type of combination is compatible for replacing the current technologies, which provide fast and specific diagnosis and tests of microbiology that result in time of an appropriate therapy of a patient (6). The potential applications of PNA comprise supramolecular nanostructure, antisense technology, nanoelectrical system, antisense technology and DNA computing. It also has nanomedical applications together with delivery of drugs and diagnostics for treating the microbial infections as well as diseases. Additionally, the knowledge and understanding concerning the biological processes such as protein synthesis and gene expression not only assists in the development of the methods associated with medical diagnostics, but are also helpful in the medical treatment by the introduction of gene and antisense therapy. PNA has properties such as high sensitivity, high binding affinity and high specificities that have been explored in the PNA array that leads to the formation of a duplex of PNA/DNA because of the electrically neutral property of the oligomers of PNA. These strong duplexes of PNA/DNA bring about higher melting temperature. PNA probes possess high biological stability and are resis tant to degradation by enzymes due to the presence of a backbone of N(2aminoethyl)glycine, which is not recognized by the proteases and nucleases. Since the enzymes cannot degrade the probes of PNA, the shelf life of of these probes is considerably long over years. Robustness of PNA and its affecting factors The PNA probes are provided with the unique characteristics of hybridization like stronger and rapid binding to the complementary targets by the synthetic backbone. These properties of the molecules of PNA are elucidated by the lack of electrostatic repulsion characteristically encountered when the hybridization of negatively charged complementary oligomers of DNA occurs. Due to the presence of a non-charged backbone, the probes of DNA hybridize independent of the salt concentration. In addition, the physico-chemical behaviour of the probes of PNA comparative to DNA gets impacted due to the negative charges. They have facilitated the development of exceptional hybridization of PNA and PNA/target separation methods. All these methods encompass pre-gel hybridization as well as binding of hybrids of probe/target to the surfaces and polymers that are positively charged (7). The unnatural backbone of PNA also signifies that the degradation of PNA do not occur by the ubiquitous enzymes like proteases and nucleases. The elevated biostability is not only essential for their utilization as therapeutic antisense agents, but is also probable to enhance the stability of probes of PNA in the diagnostic applications and offer enhanced shelf-life of the product together with a better range of assay formats. Due the backbone, the recognition of PNA do not take place by polymerases and hence cannot be used directed or copied as a primer and the monomers of PNA cannot be incorporated enzymatically into amplicons. Characteristics make the self-reporting probe of PNA more robust molecules for detection involving the real-time PCR methods as compared to their counterparts that are derived from DNA, for example the hybridization probes for the light cycler that are degraded throughout PCR by means of Taq DNAs endonuclease activity (8). In reality, the variables like kind of fixative utilized (alcohol-based or aldehyde fixation) temperature, hybridization time, probe concentration, pH, formamide and dextran sulphate, among others, are identified to affect the efficiency of hybridization (9). The time and temperature of hybridization are important variables for the outcome of the process of hybridization and for lowering the temperature at which hybridization will be performed; formamide is most commonly used (10). The temperature of hybridization is associated with the affinity of the probe to the target and its estimation can be done by Gibbs free energy change, which is related to the reaction of hybridization. The time of hybridization has been linked with the process kinetics that encompasses probe penetration through the envelope of the cell, the probe binding with the complementary sequence together with the unfolding of secondary as well as tertiary structures of rRNA and probes eventual folded portions (11). For reducing the thermal stability of the double-stranded polynucleotides, Formamide (FA), which is a denaturing agent, is used. It enhances the accessibility of the target of rRNA and competes for hydrogen bonding that facilitates the hybridization to be performed at the lower temperatures. Hence, it has been presumed that the concentration of of FA required, together with the time and temperature of hybridization. It regulates the stringency of the process and is dependent only on the sequence of the target and the structure of the probe. Additionally, the physico-chemical behaviour of the probes of PNA comparative to DNA gets impacted due to the negative charges (12). For lowering the annealing temperature and boiling point of the strands of the nucleic acids in In situ hybridization (ISH), formamide is an ideal solvent. It has an advantage for preserving the morphology because of a lower temperature for incubation. Nonetheless, in fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), aligned with the unique targets of DNA in tissue sections, for obtaining the adequate signal testing, an overnight hybridization is needed. Over the past 30 years, for in situ hybridization, the solvent for choice is formamide. It lowers the melting point through the destabilization of the double-stranded structure of the nucleic acid helix. Its toxicity is distinguished but has been overshadowed by its advantageous effects. When the hybridizing DNA probes to low copy number or single locus targets on the sections of Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue, an incubation of 16 hours or more is needed and is the major time consuming step in the procedure of in situ hybridizatio n. If the hybridization of the entire genome is done, for instance, with comparative genomic hybridization, a hybridization time 49 to 94 hours is often utilized. A major disadvantage of Fish utilizing the probes of oliginucleotides is the inconsistent and at times inadequate penetration of probes in the bacteria depending on the characteristics of their cell wall. In acid-fast bacilli and Gram-positive species, this is observed mainly as a problem. PNAs may be helpful to overcoming this problem. Because of the presence of their neutral backbone, the diffusion of PNAs occurs through the hydrophobic cell walls and allows the detection of mycobacterium through FISH and do not involve any pre-treatment. Utilising the specific fluorescently labelled PNAs, the differentiation between non-tuberculous and tuberculous mycobacteria was possible in the smears of mycobacterial cultures and directly in the samples of smear-positive sputum within few hours. However, in fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), aligned with the distinctive targets of DNA in tissue sections, for obtaining the sufficient signal testing, an overnight hybridization is required . This method constitutes an enhancement in the regular diagnosis of tuberculosis and may assist in establishing FISH as a fast, cost-effective and valuable method in the field of clinical microbiology. An organism concentration of no less than 105CFU/ml is required by PNA-FISH for the rocess of detection. This is a limitation of PNA-FISH and this particular requirement may prove to be difficult for detecting the fastidious or slow-growing organisms. Generally, the probes of DNA shorter in comparison to the conventional nucleotides are needed for the specific binding. Therefore, they appear to be an interesting substitute to the conventional oligonucleotide probes. In comparison to aegPNA and DNA, it presented a better sequence specificity and a strong binding affinity towards DNA. Method available for detecting MRNA in the tissue section An essential tool for studying the spatial organization of the genome with a high accuracy is Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). The labelled probes that target the entire chromosome or regions of chromosomes allow the direct visualization in the interphase as well as the metaphase (6). The generation of such painted probes can be done from the DNA isolated by the microdissection of the metaphase chromosome, followed by the amplification and labelling with the nucleotides that are modified by degenerate oligonucleotide primer- PCR(DOP-PCR). This method comprises the step of universal amplification that is mainly effective at amplifying the single copies of chromosome to produce paints or perform additional cytogenetic applications in which there is an availability of small quantity of DNA, for instance small pieces of microdissected tissue or single cells (7). On the other hand, Chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH), is an appropriate substitute to FISH. It leads to the pro duction of a permanent chromosome by utilising peroxidase or alkaline phosphatase- labelled reporter antibodies, which interacts with the probes of the hybridized DNA that are subsequently detected by means of an enzymatic reaction (8). CISH is advantageous over FISH as it can be viewed through a bright-field microscope. For the rapid diagnosis of bacterial pathogens in the microbiology laboratory, Real-time (RT) PCR testing can be reliable as it is an emerging competing technology. It is probable to challenge directly PNA FISH (13). Unlike PNA FISH that assists in the detection of RNA in the living organisms and it can also detect the infections that are ongoing in nature, RT-PCR cannot distinguish between the past and current infection, and therefore it is very sensitive for the diagnosis, but may possibly lack clinical specificity (14). Its development was carried out for rapidly enhancing the process of DNA amplification and improvement of specificity and sensitivity over the traditional methods. The testing can be done on all the types of specimen, along with paraffin specimens, and combines DNA technology with the fluorescent probes of the product, which is amplified in the similar reaction vessel. Since the reaction takes place within a closed vessel, the risk of contamination of the environme nt is reduced and needs less time and produce rapid results within an hour in comparison to the traditional methods of PCR testing (15). A better healthcare can be achieved by rapid and accurate diagnosis and PNA probe is more efficient than the traditional methods in this context. In the present scenario, the rate at which the human pathogens are getting resistant is alarming and it is leading towards an urgent need for improving the diagnostic technologies that are intended for the rapid detection along with point-of-care testing for supporting the quick decision making concerning the management of patient and antibiotic therapy. These data reveal the advantage of rapid that can reduce the treatment of the cultures that are contaminated, reduce expenses and stay in the hospital and it may decrease antimicrobial resistance. A disparity among the empirical therapeutic and ensuing susceptibility result from a specific organism is one of the important factor that leads to the delaying of an effectual therapy (16). It has been revealed that early and rapid administration of antimicrobial therapy to the patients suffering from the infection of the bloodstream results in the reduction of mortality. In addition, the need for a rapid diagnosis has usually been overlooked due the practices of empiric and prophylactic treatment, which utilizes broad-spectrum antibiotics. At present, though, it is well established that more suitable utilization of antibiotics is needed for limiting the emergence of the pathogens that are resistant to multiple drugs. Altering the empiric nature of antibiotics, therapy in which the patients are covered with antibiotics of a broad spectrum needs new, fast and perfect tools of diagnosis for providing the physician with timely and reliable information for the therapy and management of patients (17). Clinical microbiology laboratory service is intended for detecting and identifying the specific microorganisms in the clinical specimens for diagnosing the infectious diseases. Nonetheless, the significance of precision and the ease of the slow, inexpensive methods frequently delay the reporting time for a number of days or weeks (18). The exceptional performance distinctiveness of PNA FISH are attributed to the high specificity of the probes of PNA integrated with the utilization of rRNA as a target and they evidently demonstrate how molecular diagnosis can offer accurate results within a particular frame of time and is not likely to use the traditional phenotype-based methods of identification. In addition, PNA FISH is better than the traditional methods for mixed cultures like Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia contaminated with coagulase-negative Staphylococcus species (CNS) and for almost the species that are indistinguishable, for example C.dubliniensis and C. Albicans, in which the traditional methods failed to, provide an accurate diagnosis (6). Today, diagnostic testing is developing to become a significant constituent of the modern medicine, which is based on information and focuses on to provide rapid as well as accurate results potentially resulting in the better treatment of patients, controlling infection, and management of healthcare. PNA FISH is an illustration of diagnosis tests in this new generation and is intended to provide a real-time impact on the therapy of the patients (18). Through the introduction of PNA FISH for the rapid diagnosis of the infections in the bloodstream, novel tools has been provided to the clinical microbiology laboratory for reporting the diagnostic results in time to select the correct therapy. This evidently exemplifies how the first therapy-directing diagnosis will target the diagnostic needs that are not met and are related to the current practices of treatment with the antibiotics that are commonly used (6) In the end, it can be concluded that precise diagnostic tests have a key role in the management of patient and the control of most irresistible illnesses. Unfortunately, in numerous developing countries, clinical care is frequently compromised by the absence of regulatory controls on the quality of these tests. The data accessible on the execution of a diagnostic test can be one-sided or defective as a result of failings in the configuration of the studies which evaluated the performance attributes of the test. Subsequently, diagnostic tests are sold and utilized in much of the developing world without confirmation of adequacy. Misdiagnosis leading to failure in treating a severe disease or squandering costly treatment on individuals who are not infected remains a serious problem of health and wellbeing. The improvement of a diagnostic test more often than not takes after a way from recognizable proof of the diagnostic target and advancement of test reagents to the improvement of a t est model. The exceptional physicochemical properties of of PNA molecules, facilitates the development of assays that are uncomplicated and robust in several areas of biology together with molecular genetics, virology, microbiology, cytogenetics, and parasitology because of the chemical modifications that are new to the original backbone of PNA. Currently, the rate at which the pathogens of humans are getting resistant is frightening and it is leading towards an urgent need for enhancing the diagnostic technologies that aimed to the rapid detection along with point-of-care testing for supporting the quick decision making concerning the patient management and antibiotic therapy. It shows the decrease in the treatment of the cultures that are contaminated, lessen expenses and stay in the hospital and it may reduce antimicrobial resistance. A difference among the empirical therapeutic and subsequent susceptibility result from a specific organism is one of the significant factor that le ads to the delaying of an efficient therapy.

In the Mind of Psychopaths Essay Example

In the Mind of Psychopaths Essay Ravina Patel 1136613 General Psychology assignment- Wider awareness Pondering on psychopathic traits Aided by brain scans (MRI), scientists have found that psychopaths have significant brain impairments, which are decreased amount of grey matter in the brain responsible for processing empathy, moral reasoning and guilt that clearly affect their ability to feel emotions, and to react to other people’s distress. Also, other studies have linked the amygdala with psychopathic traits as this area is related to aggressive behavior. Abnormalities in other parts of the brain such as the orbitofrontal cortex have also been correlated to psychopathy, as this area is responsible for lying, irresponsibility, and lack of emotion. Brain scans have also shown that psychopaths (with mean, aggressive, rude attitude) have more activity in the part of the brain related to the expectation of rewards. Other than physical brain abnormalities, genes could also be playing a role on psychopathic behavior (monster-like behavior such as merciless killing, torturing, cannibalism, etc. . Psychopaths can also be considered as â€Å"natural born predators† as they tend to sense emotions such as fear accurately. Apart from biology, social upbringing can also be playing a role in psychopath’s lives. In fact, violent upbringing can contribute to psychopathic traits. However, psychopathic traits cannot be explained with simply one factor or another; it is a combination of biological traits, social traits, personal psychology and biochemical traits that are combined to explain psychopathic behavior. We will write a custom essay sample on In the Mind of Psychopaths specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on In the Mind of Psychopaths specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on In the Mind of Psychopaths specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer According to Dr. Robert Hare, the percentage of psychopaths in Canada goes up to 1% of the total population. One important distinction to make is that psychopaths are not necessarily murderous creatures. In fact, many of them may not even be criminals. However, people with lack of emotions, feelings, remorse or concern for other’s well being do tend to contribute to destroyed lives. Antisocial personality disorder (psychopath) is defined as â€Å"behavior outside any ethical and legal standard of society† (376). As stated in the article, the textbook confirms that the amygdala plays a key role in emotion, especially when it comes to fear and aggression (57,315). In accordance with the article, the textbook’s authors also state that psychopaths feel little distress for others and they see no wrong in their cruel behaviors toward others (376). From Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, morality in the first stages (childhood stages) is based on rewards, punishments and exchange of favors. On the conventional level, morality is based on the adherence of social rules and norms. Lastly, in the postcoventional level, individuals do the difference between what is right and what is wrong, and define morality in terms of social principles (274,275). Psychopaths do not seem to follow this path at all since their judgments are impaired with other brain abnormalities. In agreement with the article, psychopaths are not always criminals. Some may be politicians or even business people. Their impulsive behavior and lack of conscience harm people surrounding them (377). Unlike sane people, psychopaths â€Å"have abnormal low activity in the brain during stress periods† (they do not feel the pressure to perform well or whatsoever) and they have less grey matter in their frontal lobes (responsible for emotion, reasoning, and problem solving (377). In agreement with both the article and the textbook, lack of grey matter in the frontal lobe can also explain psychopath’s manipulative behaviors and impulsive acts. As stated in the article, the nurture environment plays a role in antisocial personality disorder. Abusive upbringing, anything from emotional deprivation to wrong disciplinary rules affects psychopaths (377). They also have low sense of moral development. In fact, they do not have a sharp sense of what is right and what is wrong (276). Killing and causing harm to others may not be considered â€Å"bad† from psychopaths’ judgment. Other people may be just perceived as mere objects of pleasure, or torture. The textbook and the articles basically state the same concepts of brain abnormalities to explain psychopathic behaviors. The amygdala, along with other regions of the brain can explain some cruel behaviors. Similarly, during the early stage of development of the child, some trauma such as violent upbringing can also accentuate violent behavior in the future. I found this article particularly interesting because psychopathic behaviors are not always subject to a lot of discussions. Psychopaths are hidden in society and we tend to live with them, not knowing how they can (or can’t) ruin our lives. Maybe someone close to us may present traits of a psychopath, but we ignore or deny it. I am almost fascinated by their relationship with the rest of humanity. I probably wont ever get over the fact that psychopaths are capable of doing inhuman acts and not find anything wrong to it (such as cannibalism). I used to think that psychopaths had completely different social behaviors, which made them very distinct from other people. Now I know that it is not the case. I can’t tell if someone close-minded, incapable of loving, insincere, impulsive, egocentric and harsh is dangerous or not. At some point, this feeling causes insecurity in its own environment.

Relative Roles of State and Ngos in Community Development with Respect to Housing as Service Delivery Essay Example

Relative Roles of State and Ngos in Community Development with Respect to Housing as Service Delivery Essay Example Relative Roles of State and Ngos in Community Development with Respect to Housing as Service Delivery Essay Relative Roles of State and Ngos in Community Development with Respect to Housing as Service Delivery Essay What are the developments options the state and the Non-governmental organisations have performed for the Peddie Extension area with regard to the housing delivery. Aims and Objectives of the study: Two aims and objectives have been identified for this study, namely to: * assess whether the stakeholders from the community are satisfied with the housing delivery process and how they have benefitted from the process. * Understand, and analyse the roles played by the state in housing delivery and Non-governmental organisations in service delivery for the rural poor in Peddie Extension.When a state attempts to employ strategies to reduce poverty, to provide necessary service delivery, to involve the poor in their communities in development decision making and resource allocation, it is probable to find its normal and suggested mechanisms inadequate. Additionally when the state endavours to develop the communities by providing with economic policy, basic services and infrastructure, but i s rarely targeted toward rural areas and people. Within the context, more is being asked whether the contribution of voluntarily sector to development provides more emphasis on poverty reduction, a community and participatory development.As the state endavours to develop communities, the social, economic and political environment created an operational environment for the NGOs. Literature on Non-governmental organizations indicates that NGOs have played a major role in an attempt to secure the protection of human rights nationally and internationally. Chakawarika (2011) argues that, the existence of NGOs is proving to be a necessity rather than a luxury in societies throughout the modern world. It is evident that in many developing countries, the role of NGOs has evolved in response to the market gaps left by the government (Gaist: 2009).Impelled by the inadequacies of the state and the market, citizens across the globe have developed NGOs to deal with a diversity of social needs. C onsequently, it could be argued that NGOs are increasingly identified as crucial role-players in community and people-centred development. Gaist (2009) indicates that the NGOs have frequently been regarded as very important for democracy since they have a strong support at grassroots level and their ability to develop and empower poor communities. This is a well-needed attribute in Zimbabwe as most of the communities are beyond being poor.Nzimakwe (2002) also supported this nature of NGOs saying they are enormously vital mechanisms in rural development as they benefit from the goodwill and reception of the community, consequently the NGOs have become very crucial players in the field of social development. There are other researchers who have conceptualized development such as Manuel Castells who was a sociologist who has theorised about the information age. His emphasis on development is mainly on the economic, political and cultural aspects.His major claim relevant to this study i s that, because of the rise of the information age, individual states are no longer able to do what is needed to develop the citizens of their individual countries. He is therefore very pessimistic about the role of the state as agent for development. 2. THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY The issue of service delivery in Eastern Cape has become the point of interest in the past few years in South Africa. The Bill of Rights embodied in the South African Constitution (Act No. 108 of 1996) (RSA, 1996) states in section 24 that: ‘Everyone has the right to have adequate housing’.Consequently authorities are increasingly confronted with challenges to increase the delivery of houses to citizens. Scholars (Irurah and Boshoff, 2003) argue that, the delivery has not been followed through in implementation in various sectors of the economy. It is essential that these challenges be addressed by making use of correct implementation knowledge, proper analysis and evaluation policies of hous ing delivery. There is no public service can be rendered without suitable governing and administrative arrangements.Millions of historically disadvantaged South Africans, however, still live in rural communities or informal settlements that lack basic shelter and other services (Lawson, 1991). The Eastern Cape housing department provides the legislative and constitutional mandate to provide houses to the poor rural citizens of this province. It stands to reason that, citizens of this province would have access to decent and adequate houses. Rendering of housing services by government has resulted in uncompleted and defective houses due to inexperienced contractors providing poor workmanship and corruption in the housing programmes.Consequently, the state interventions of attempting to provide basic service delivery such as housing delivery in rural areas have been largely ineffective. Castell (2000:92) argues that some obstacles for development come from government bureaucracies. Ho wever, the latter, is only possible when the government policies are haphazard and an approach to community development is uncoordinated. Thus far, there are comprehensive national housing policies to really guide developments.After 1994 the ANC-led government embarked on housing delivery programme to rectify the past imbalances and this hampers the provision of housing in post-Apartheid South Africa. This provision enhanced human settlement development nationally, provincially and locally to meet the needs of South African citizens. These include, among others, expressing housing policies, confirming adequate access to relevant information so that citizens and civil society can mobilise around housing rights, and ongoing monitoring and evaluation of housing progress and implementation (â€Å"Expanding Socio-Economic Rights and Access to Housing, 29 October 2003, p. ). African communities from urban areas benefited from housing delivery as they were entitled to have title deeds of the houses they lived in and some have their houses built. In contrast, black rural communities were not part of the planning and development decisions that affect the quality of their lives as a result, the state did not build houses for people from rural areas. Consequently, the government has been criticised by many dissatisfied South Africans, politicians and the media. Some criticisms were mainly from the media highlighting the corruption, mismanagement with regard to community projects as well as poor service delivery.According to the state which remains as the major protectors and abusers of human rights, NGOs have materialised as central players in the promotion of human rights around the world. Varona (2006) further argue that, citizens felt that there is a need for organising NGOs to develop alternative strategies and acquire new skills and capabilities in order to facilitate this access to housing, serviced land and basic services as lately, for informal settlements to ge t the attention of government in their bid for housing and land tenure, a presentation of concrete development plans, studies and options for housing development is needed.A year after 2006 local government elections, the Minister of Safety and Security reported some 5085 protests against unskilled and corrupt local government nationwide (Robert, 2007: 14). It stands to reason that, there is an escalation of corruption and squandering of resources by government officials and of which result on poor service delivery. In Philippines for instance Varona (2006) argue that inefficient government housing programs has aggravated and made poor communities lose confidence in an ability of the government to provide for basic services like housing and serviced land.Marie Huchzermeyer (2003) points out that, it is the lack of formal rights that allows for exploitation by politicians, by irresponsible or even repressive bureaucracies, and by informally operating groups or individuals in the cont rol over land, access to services, commercial activities, etc. Some researchers indicate that black rural communities have been excluded from participating in the conceptualisation process, planning and development decisions that affect the quality of their lives.Miraftab (2003) advocates that critics point out that viewed in this way, community participation may indeed ameliorate communities’ immediate problems but seldom then continues beyond the life of the specific projects and does not result in any greater community influence in decision making. As a result of that, the rural communities do not actively participate in local governance. 3. THE PROBLEM STATEMENT The purpose of this study is to show that the state has not been performing or has performed poorly in its role as provider of houses in the rural areas of Ngqushwa Local Municipality in Peddie Extension.Therefore, rural citizens are left with no other option than to make use of alternative building, their houses built with mud of which are sometimes not safe and secure. The absence of the decent houses has the risk involve to citizens namely, catching cold and storms outbreak. This problem is predominant in the remote rural areas. In some areas foundations of houses have been laid or walls are built for almost years but no roofs, windows or doors. But there are elected politicians, NGO officials and appointed officials who are supposed to be role-players for the benefit of the citizens.Theirs is to play the role of local government in terms of community development and service delivery as mandated by the constitution. They need to be able to deal with the challenges confronting the local government with regard to service delivery. It stands to reason that, community involvement in decision making is vital during planning. If community participation is neglected or limited then planning and delivery will experience implementation problem.Other problem that has been identified with regard to officials is a lack of understanding of the service delivery processes as well as lack in capability to administrative work. It is thus clear that there is a fundamental problem of rendering service delivery in Peddie Extenstion by incompetent local and non-government officials who do not play their essential roles in satisfying the demand for rural community development. It is thus evident that the municipal officials hamper the implementation processes of the housing delivery provided by the state policies.Consequently they fail to satisfy the demand for the sustainable housing service. 4. RESEARCH QUESTION What are the community development programmess the state and Non-governmental organisations have implemented for the Peddie Extension with regard to the housing delivery service? 5. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY * To assess whether the community members from the Peddie Extension are satisfied with the housing delivery process and how they have benefitted from the process. Un derstand, and analyse the roles played by the state and Non-governmental organisations in housing delivery for the rural poor in Peddie Extension. 6. LIMITATION OF THE STUDY The study will be limited to the Ngqushwa area particularly in Peddie Extension. The intention is to look at community with rural geographical location. Participants in this study will be voluntary. Thus, factors that may limit this study may include access to information, time, travelling funds, unwillingness of participant and insufficient literature on the specific study. 7. THE LITERATURE OF THE STUDYService delivery programmes played an important role in the development of South Africa. The housing sector this is particularly significant as the delivery of housing to low-income communities has been one of the key programmes of the South African government since 1994 (Irurah and Boshoff, 2003). Housing delivery in Eastern Cape in particular which is mostly rural, is forced by a various challenging issues. Pr imarily the Apartheid government has focused only to the white people, the African people in rural areas were almost forgotten, hence the backlog.As a result, this backlog and other challenges overlapped into the present state. Castells (1996) also wishes to demonstrate the role of information technology in transforming the whole economic, social and cultural environment of our times. Researchers such as (Cassier and Kesteloot, 2012) stress that in an information society, there are increasing inequalities that bring about intensifying processes of economic globalisation, capital and labour flexibility and welfare restructuring. Information society, however, is empowered by capital rules in financial form.It stands to reason that the information age comprises of unevenness of development, of the new inequalities and deprivations. Castells claims a new society has risen as a result of the information technology revolution, the economic crisis of capitalism and statism (communism) and the blooming of new social movements like environmentalism and feminism. He argues that more of the worldwide communication is happening through the electronic media, like social networks, electronic mails, cellular phone and so forth.And this network society is global, it is based on global networks and it manifests itself in many forms of production systems and new culture. Castells indicates that, together these three processes are causing a new social structure ‘ a network society’, a new economy ‘a global informational economy’ and a new culture ‘a culture of real virtuality ( in van Dijk, 2001). Harding (2006) argues that multifaceted virtual culture, enforces powerful economic decisions at every moment in the life of the network. Castells’ focus and ideas about development contradicts with those of neo-liberals and neo-Marxists.He focuses on the economic as well as the political and cultural aspects of development while neoliberalsâ€⠄¢ view of development as about the shift of control of the economy from the ‘public sector’ to the ‘private sector’. The philosophy behind neoliberalism is to maximise the role of the private sectors. In essence the aim of neoliberalism is to strive for national success in terms of the global market and that social life should be determined by the market which can be considered to be the best design for the society. Neoliberals also encourage the maximization of contract as well as the entrepreneurial precepts.It also resulted into the forms of work contracts, such as temporary, part-time, contract, and casual workers (Peck, 1996:119) Globalization and neoliberalism are sometimes used interchangeably, if one could argue under the notion of making the economic structure in an outline of a uniform, that is, interconnection of nations through trading. In addition, the keywords between globalization and the neoliberalism are, ‘global capitalism’ a nd ‘privatization’. Neo-liberal restructuring is central to the globalisation process which demands free-market, privatisation, externalisation, casualisation, and more.Conversely, Holm and Sorensen (1995:4) define globalization as the intensification of economic, political, social and cultural relations across borders. Globalisation is made to be valid and it is not seen as an economic aspect, however; one could argue that it is a new phase of capitalism. Harding (2006) adds on what Castells propounds on that the new flexibility offered to capital by information technology is intimately linked to the accelerating progress of globalization, permitting capitalists to keep down labour costs while exploiting emerging markets.Moreover, ideology serves as tool belief with a great political influence to make neoliberalism and globalization acceptable. On the other hand neo-Marxism focuses the most on the social inequalities and it shows the uprising of opposition that counter s inequalities. This theory arose from the work of Karl Marx and it is for the ideas of Max Weber who have theorized on social inequalities for example status and power. Neo-Marxism theory view class division as more important than gender or sex division or issues of race and ethnicity.Moreover Neo-Marxism theory seeks to reveal the hegemony of the dominant class which results to political power. Castells attributes that indeed, the vanguard social and cultural values are in the very design innovations that powered and shaped the oncoming technological revolution (Harding, 2006). There exists what is known as the policy making which is a large sector of elite control within government whereby the corporate community consisting of the upper class work hand in hand in overlapping spheres of economic and political entities (Domhoff,1990: 105).The economy is considered as a fundamental strong point of any society (Livingston, 1939: 53) as people are dependent on an income for basic surv ival necessities, thus if the government favours policies which inadvertently co-operate with the views of the corporate power then the needy are inevitably cared for and corporate elitist take on roles of leadership within the community (Domhoff 2006: 103). 8. FOCUS STUDY AREA The Ngqushwa Municipality is in the ex-homeland an area of the Ciskei. It has only one small town and the majority of the population live in rural areas.Consequently they live in traditional dwellings made of wattle and mud bricks. A large number of citizens build their own dwellings using their own labour and local materials. The most common houses or brick structure are on separate stand or yard, which applies to rural settings. High levels of poverty and difficulties prevails throughout the country, in urban and rural areas alike, due to high levels of unemployment and severe shortages of formal housing. Most members in rural community would not have access to credit for the construction of dwellings in co mmunal or informal tenure areas. 9.RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This will provide an understanding in which the methodology will be used in this study. In this study, it will cover the essence of research design, data collection and data analysis. 9. 1 RESEARCH DESIGN Research design is concerned with defining the type of study to be assumed to produce the intended results. The research design is a key element in its success. Leedy (1997) states that the design process is the planning of the research and includes visualization of the data and problems associated with the use of those data in achieving the results of the research project.The study will make use of an empirical research design which will be informed by the literature review and analysis. Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures. According to Leedy (2001:191) descriptive survey involves distinguishing the characteristics of something. He further suggests that descriptive method is suitable for data obtained from observation. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products.Struwig and Stead (2001:12) identify that qualitative researchers are very interested in understanding the issues being researched from the perspective of the research participants. The quantitative principles are based on the view that the world is organised and bound by rules. Also quantitative research seeks to use the existing data to analyse the given data in order to validate the representations with regard to the role of state and NGOs in development. Quantitative research makes perfectly clear that seeks to employ mathematical and statistical models pertaining phenomenon.The reason for using quantitative research, intends to understand participants’ experience pertaining to challenges of housing delivery in Peddie Extension by describing housing project management which res ulted in poor or better quality of housing delivery service. It also brings about the broader understanding of the effectiveness of the state or NGOs in rural housing delivery to develop the community. 9. 2 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS The data to be used in this paper will be developed from both primary and secondary sources.Primary data The primary data will come from in-depth interviews with grass-roots members of community and government officials. The reason to focus on government officials is that they have detailed information and knowledge on housing delivery. Representatives from non-governmental organisations could be interviewed so as to acquire a broader understanding of the social and political relations in Peddie Extension. Observations and photographs will be used to collect more primary data. Secondary dataThis information will be collected through quantitative approach by describing the state and NGOs’ effectiveness in the issues of service delivery in rural areas. A desk study and network research will be employed to review more additional data from archival documents, housing legislations, policies and programmes in government housing interventions. And from resource relevant databases, related case studies, researches, surveys and publications. The quantitative data on housing delivery will be obtained from the local state municipality offices.The other data will be attained through analysis of relevant sources focusing on housing delivery, statistics, housing policy, frameworks, process and practice and other official reports on housing programmes or projects. 10. TIME FRAMES AND BUDGET To make the study to have meaningful analysis with regard to the role of the non-governmental organisations and state, the study will be based on collaboration between NGOs, government officials and other participant in housing delivery projects during the period April to October 2013 in the Ngqushwa rural area.The rationale for this period will be a ffected by factors such as financial constraints and the nature of the study. 11. OUTLINES OF CHAPTERS Chapter one will be concerned with an introduction to the study which describes and explains the background, problem statement, research questions, objectives, necessity, study plan, limitations of the study, and the definition of words and terms used in the study. Chapter two will provide a literature review of study, framework, concepts and theories which are concerned with community development.Theories that describe the role of the state and NGOs in service deliver. The challenges of grow of homelessness of rural community members as revealed by poverty; lack of access to basic services, facilities and lack of participation of communities in decision-making in the poor communities. Chapter three will outline the research methodology; define the research techniques, data collecting instruments, and the analysis techniques. Chapter four will represent the data presentation, analy sis and interpretation and will provide the criteria for analysis and the actual analysis.Chapter five will deal with the conclusion and will summarise the findings and deductions made in the preceding chapters. Specific inadequacies and problem areas in the role of state and NGOs in community development services will be explained and recommendations to remedy such situation and future actions will be provided.

Sensation and Preception Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Sensation and Preception - Essay Example Driving is another instance where sensation and perception is vital to our well-being. Determining our distance in relation to a structure, or another vehicle, is particularly important for our safety, and the safety of others with whom we share the road. These are two instances, in which these processes are necessary to ensure our survival during our normal, everyday lives. During the viewing of this video, my perception of sensory stimuli was noticeably changed on numerous occasions. The most notable of these, was the screen that appeared to be a darker shade of gray on the left half. This was most intriguing, because when the sensory stimuli was altered by simply covering the center boundary, the only area in which a difference in shade was actually present, both halves of the screen were proven to be identical in color. In retrospect, even though one is aware of there being no actual difference, aside from the center boundary, we still get the sensation that there is a slight dif ference in brightness or color. This phenomenon, referred to as subjective contours, is explained as the brain’s tendency to detect a slight difference in the sensory stimuli, in this case the slight color variation, and to over-extend that variation, therefore registering a pattern that does not exist.

Systems project management- master level Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Systems project management- master level - Essay Example Project Managers are often employed to manage project that will satisfy the need of the organization to increase productivity and quality of products to increase profit or increase profit while maintaining productivity and quality of products. It is therefore important for Project Managers to satisfy the needs of employees in order for them to provide quality products to customers. Project Managers has the responsibility to manage this dynamics as his project gets implemented and rolled out. Q1.2 User requirements – are the list of functionality that users expect or demands from their system to make them more productive and for the users to efficiently respond to customer demands. In essence user requirements also respond to the three words enunciated above. User requirements satisfy the need of People meaning the employee and the customer. User requirements also satisfy the need of the product to be of the highest quality. User requirement also satisfy the need to increase if not maintain the profitability of the organizations. The user requirements needed by the case are as follows: Confidentiality – to ensure that only employees’ who have the right to access, change, edit and use documents can access them. Integrity – It is imperative that the system to be implemented can maintain, ensure and guarantee that the information contained or being accessed by employees have not been tampered with or is the correct one, if not the latest applicable version. Accessibility – is another user requirement that needs to be satisfied to ensure that the employees who need the document can access them as designed. Confidentiality, Integrity and Accessibility will solve and correct the experiences of the organization in the past that would include fraud, availability of data when and where it is needed, and for information to reach the right party when and where it is needed. The other technical user requirements for the new system should i nclude imbedded document change management process that should guarantee an audit trail and version control as well as document and process tracking. Another technical user requirement is the accessibility of the system from anywhere and anytime despite any environmental issues. Another technical user requirement is the sharing of one Outlook Directory within the organization. Q1.3 – WAN is a Wide Area Network often used to make information available across large distances and despite physical geographical barriers. Microsoft office is a set of product often used by organizations as productivity tools this would include MS word, MS Excel, MS outlook, power point and others. Microsoft Share point is a document sharing software that would enable organization to make its voluminous data, record or even knowledge to be accessible at all level of its organization. Q1. 4 – The most common problems experienced by commuters are the following; delayed or unreliable train schedu les, canceled train schedule and lack of information on what is happening or what caused the delay or how long will it take to resolve the issue. Commuters like any of other human being have a number of expectations. If those expectations are not met it would result to frustration and then eventually anger. Airlines or airports have long resolved the issue of angry commuters by

International marketing assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

International marketing assignment - Essay Example Saudi Arabia has also been partly affected by the Arab unrest. Saudi Arabia has literacy levels of about 84% (Askari 73). This is the highest in the Middle East. Arabic is the official and the most widely used language in Saudi Arabia. However, it is interesting to note that English is widely used in the business field. The government has also made English as the second compulsory language in schools. Islam is the official religion. The Islam sharia also rules the country, and all citizens are Muslims (Shoult 87). Most of the media houses use Arabic. However, some media outlets run in English. The wide use of in English has affected business in Saudi Arabia positively (Shoult 67). This has encouraged businessmen from all over the world to invest in Saudi Arabia. Islam strongly affects the culture of Saudi Arabia. However, the Saudi Arabian government has come up with a short course that guides foreigners on how to do business in the country (Shoult 54). The language used in the media will help a company come up with a marketing technique that does not violate the cultural beliefs of the people of Saudi Arabia and also ensures the advertisement reaches a huge number of people. Therefore, the company has to use the most widely used language for advertisement

Strategies for Language Translation | Dissertation

Strategies for Language Translation | Dissertation Introduction The present dissertation is largely based on research in the field of translation. Translation is an influential valid feature of our society, and it symbolizes one of the most important aspects in shaping the upcoming course of the planet. . The translators tasks are complex and refer to his/her abilities of dealing with every aspect of the process of translation. The power of translator lies in his/her responsibility for his/her end product. I chose this topic because I believe translation is part of everyones life and it has profound implications in our society. The translation is defined and influenced by the type of source text, the target readers understanding, the context, the translators skills and the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. My approach is two-fold: a theoretical perspective A. Theoretical considerations and a practical one B. Application. The first part explains what the translator tasks imply and what factors influence the translational competence, analyzes the characteristics of these skills, offering guidelines and methods of approach for a better understanding. The second part deals with the problems I encountered while translating a part of Ultima noapte de dragoste, à ®ntà ¢ia noapte de război by Camil Petrescu. In the first chapter, â€Å"Who are translators†, I shall try to define the translators profession, what important tools influence the activity of translation as well as what skills a translator should possess in order to be a competent translator. The first subchapter, â€Å"Skills of reading and writing† regards the translators tasks of decoding and encoding a text to offer the correct meaning in his/her translation. The next sub-chapters, â€Å"Subject area and Contrastive knowledge† and â€Å"Source language and Target language knowledge† describe why a translator should be specialized in various fields and the differences between the two languages regarding the language systems and cultures. In the second chapter, â€Å"Factors that influence the translational competence†, I shall begin by theorizing translational competence, which refers to all those factors that lead to perfection in translation. The first subchapter, â€Å"Psychological factors†, underlines the effect of psychology on the process of translation. â€Å"Knowledge of translation theory†, the next subchapter, describes the norms of the field of translation, which help the translator to render the overall meaning of the source text and to have the same effect on the readership. The third subchapter, â€Å"The quality of translation. Efficiency of text analysis†, analyzes what a translator should avoid in order to ensure a correct translation and to establish the necessary level of quality. â€Å"Culture† and â€Å"Experience†, the next subchapters refer to how the knowledge of the source and target culture as well as the experience in the field help the translator to make the right decisions in translation. The second part of the dissertation contains five chapters, which rely on the translation The last night of love, the first night of war. The first chapter, â€Å"The process of translation† presents the steps taken in the process of translation. â€Å"Source text and Target text analysis† deals with analyzing the extratextual and intratextual factors for each of the two languages. The last chapters â€Å"Identification of translation problems† and â€Å"Comments on translation† regard what translation problems were found during the translation process and I will discuss as well the translation difficulties and the way they were solved. The last chapter contains the translation of the first part of the novel by Camil Petrescu. Being a proficient translator may be a quality that comes by nature or by continuous practice. I strongly believe that although theory helps, it is practice that actually leads to perfection in translation. A. Theoretical considerations 1. Who are translators? Translation is one of the various means of communication existing and, from this point of view, it is very important because it establishes a connection between at least two languages, two cultures, two nations; at verbal level it helps transferring their characteristic elements from one into the other as well as understanding them. Not giving it importance equates with a total isolation from the rest of the world. A translation involves three parties, of which the third one, represented by the translator, is the most important. His responsibility is enormous because the burden of transferring the message presses over his shoulders. Knowing a foreign language and the subject is not as important as being sensitive to language and being competent to speak his own language clearly and resourcefully. For a good speaker avoids not only errors of usage but also mistakes of fact and language simply by applying his good sense. A translator has also to have flair and a so-called â€Å"sixth sense†, which is compounded of intelligence, sensibility, intuition and knowledge. S/he perhaps more than any other practitioner of a profession, is continually faced with choices and has to be very careful and extremely fast in making them. If I were to draw a line between translation and the translator and to state which ones importance is greater, I would say that a translation cannot be achieved without the appropriate person to do it, i.e. the translator. The same applies to the translator, who fades away without the core of his profession. They depend on each other and are vital for the welfare of this world. An element of great importance for a translator is the professional pride, a consideration higher than money, because s/he can fell her/his work is appreciated. I believe this is the case not only for in-house people, but also for freelancers. Even a high salary would not motivate as much a translator as the pride in the work. The professional integrity comes with the idea of being reliable, involving in the profession and respecting the ethics. Reliability means doing the job as to meet the users needs. The translator is in a position of translating the texts that the user needs, in the style the client wants them to be translated, and by a deadline requested by the user. The attempt to become a reliable translator may sometimes bring about assignments that are impossible to achieve for many reasons: the texts are morally inappropriate, the necessary work is consumptive or the experience is not enough to deal with such a text. The translator involves in his profession in many ways. If s/he participates to courses and conferences in the field, this will consolidate the professional self-esteem that will definitely encourage and motivate them to accept different challenges: Reading about translation, talking about translation with other translators, discussing problems and solutions related to linguistic transfer, user demands, nonpayment, and the like, taking classes on translation, attending translator conferences, keeping up with technological developments in the field, buying and learning to use new software and hardware − all this gives us the strong sense that we are not isolated underpaid flunkies but professionals surrounded by other professionals who share our concerns. Involvement in the translation profession may even give us the intellectual tools and professional courage to stand up to unreasonable demands, to educate clients and employers rather that submit meekly and seethe inwardly. Being a translator does not mean only being involved in a work that s/he loves but also earning a living. Professional translators know the quality of their work and they will charge their clients according to this criterion. Of course, the amount of money is proportional with the volume of their assignments and the speed they work with. Probably translators are expected to translate fast; usually in-house translators translate fast, but the work in an agency is different from that of a freelancer. Freelancers have a different rhythm of their work and, if they do translations faster, this will bring more money for them. Of course, if one translates for pleasure and amusement, there is no need for being fast. They savor every step in the process and tend to deal with one paragraph for hours. Many factors influence the translation speed. One of them is typing speed. It helps the translator to write rapidly his/her ideas on the computer. Another factor of importance is the degree of text difficulty. A difficult text will slow down the process of translation and will take much more time do it. The continuous practice and experience makes the translator to process easily the difficult words and structures. The same situation is for how the familiar the text will be for the translator. Other factors that interfere in the process of translation are the personal style and the general mental state of the translator. The use of translation memory software is very helpful for a translator and increases the translation speed. Besides these advantages, many things should be taken into account: if the volume of translation is reduced, this will not warrant the cost of the software. Usually, in-house translators use this software. Large corporations usually need a great volume of translations and address to them and not to freelancers. This software is helpful only with texts in digital form; it is not helpful in the case of literal translation. However, freelancers who work for different agencies and who have a high-volume of assignments say that the use of translation memory software is very helpful though it is not very creative. 1.1. Skills of reading and writing The translators knowledge of translation theory and the skills of reading and writing a text are definitely of paramount importance for the quality of the translation. The ethics of translation speak about the way in which a translator should understand the text that needs to be translated, how to recognize the authors intention in order to render the appropriate message into the target language. The translator has to analyze the text linguistically, culturally, philosophically, even politically, if necessary. The first step is to get a general reading and then a closer one to establish the characteristics of that text. The translator has to know how to identify the authors attitude to the subject matter. S/he also must pay special attention to the type of language that is used, grammatical structures, register, rhetorical function, genre, the use of modals and especially to the needs and expectations of the target audience. It is known that all these ethical rules are taught because they do not come instinctively. Usually, if they come naturally, they surely come by experience. A professional translation often arises at the subliminal level due to the fact that the translator has an analytical feeling which helps him/her finding the solutions to those problems that are somehow similar to precedent situations. The novice translators are taught analytical guidelines to help them becoming familiar with the rules and, at the same time to become proficient, without being aware of it. The wheel of experience shows how this analysis of the brain becomes a sort of second nature for the translator during the process of translation. Another reading guideline for the translator is to decide the emotional tone and the degree of formality of the source text. Determining the audience of the target text shows how the target language should be structured, deciding to whom it is addressed, to the educated, the average literate audience or others. Children are a special audienc e and the message is different according to the age, the degree of familiarity with the stories, the amusement that the translation provokes and many others. Eugene Nida explains how the ability of decoding a text should work: Decoding ability in any language involves at least four principal levels: (I) the capacity of children, whose vocabulary and cultural experience are limited; (2) the double-standard of new literates, who can decode oral messages with facility but whose ability to decode written messages is limited; (3) the capacity of the average literate adult, who can handle both oral and written messages with relative ease; and (4) the unusually high capacity of specialists (doctors, theologians, philosophers, scientists, etc.), when they are decoding messages within their own area of specialization. Obviously, a translation designed for children cannot be the same as one prepared for specialists, nor can a translation for children be the same as one for a newly literate adult. The translation has to be the same with the translators intention and point of view and the translator always has to keep in mind the target language readership. The translation of colloquial and intimate phrases are always problematic for the translator and they should be translated carefully. The grammatical analysis helps the translator to understand the relationships between the words and at the same time to help him/her to get the message of the author. It becomes crucial to find the correct meaning of the grammatical constructions given the fact that one construction may have many interpretations or meanings. The problem becomes acute in the case of idioms because they need a special approach when they need to be translated. Eugene Nida and Charles Taber mention the difficulties that arise when translating these expressions: Idioms are typically constructed on quite normal grammatical patterns of phrase structure, but the meaning of the whole idiom is not simply the sum of the meanings of the parts, nor can one segment the meaning (in the many cases where it is complex) and assign a definable portion of the meaning to each grammatical piece (e.g., a morpheme). [] one must treat the entire expression as a semantic unit, even though in the surface structure of the grammar it obeys all of the rules applicable to the individual pieces. Writing skills are as important as reading skills and refer to the ability of writing in a clear and proper form. Translators have to be familiar with different styles of writing according to each domain, as well as with those conventions regarding editing. The skills of reading a source language text are significant qualities for a translator and help him understanding the original text and delivering a translation in an appropriate and correct style. Reading the source text is the first step in the process of translation and the better the translator understands the meaning of the authors intention, the clearest he will render the message into the target language. The understanding of the source text represents a primary ability necessary in the process of translation, followed by a combination between other skills, which will be presented in this chapter. 1.2. Subject area and contrastive knowledge Translators must be aware of the importance of being specialized in various subject fields, such as: medical translation, legal translation, financial translation, technical IT translation, scientific translation, marketing and PR translation, website translation and others. The knowledge of a certain subject area helps the translator to deal with words and constructions that are specific to that domain. Many translators have the courage to say that their knowledge of translation theory allows them to accept texts that need to be translated from different fields. It is somehow premature to say that, especially by a beginner in the field of translation. Of course, an experienced translator may deal easily with this type of texts, but ideally, one should have in mind the necessary training in a particular field. Contrastive knowledge refers to how a translator should be able to find the contrastive elements between the source and target language so as to deliver an accurate message through his/her translation. An analysis should be made at the linguistic level, namely the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic levels, and the literary one. The syntactic level deals with the analysis at the sentence, clause, phrase and word level. The semantic analysis refers to how the translator examines the relationships between the elements found through syntactic analysis. At the pragmatic level, the translator tries to identify the register features of the text which express the intention of the source language author. After these three steps of analysis, follows the stage of synthesis, a stage that starts on the contrary way, with the pragmatic level. 1.3. Source language and Target language knowledge It is well-known the fact that a translator should possess a good knowledge of both source and target language, in other words, s/he should be a master of the two languages. They have to be fluent in the two languages in order to be able to transmit the proper message and to sound as natural as possible in the target language, using a correct style and terminology. What is also important is to know and apply all the rules concerning editing conventions of the two languages which will help the readability of the target language text. The booklet entitled †Bilingual Skills Certificate and Certificate in Community Interpreting† published by the Institute of Linguists gives an interesting definition on bilingualism: Bilingual service providers are people who possess two sets of skills language and professional skills, so that they can give the same standard of service in the context of two languages and cultures. In order to provide an equal standard of service to all clients, the people providing the service should have adequate standards of training and qualification in both sets of skills. For example, allowing people to give medical advice or gather information upon which medical decisions are made when they are not qualified and solely on the grounds that they happen to speak French or Urdu is as bad as giving good medical advice which cannot be understood. One of the risks that translators are dealing with is that of fooling the brain into thinking that the structures used in the target language are correct merely only because they are correct in the source language. This is especially the case of translators who work in their adopted country as a result of the fact that they begin to think like a native. Keeping up with cultural change is the way in which the translator can understand a language properly and s/he can translate it successfully. For this reason it is said that the best translations are done by native speakers, residents in the country where the target language is spoken. If the translator has the possibility to travel to the source language country to work on different tasks, he will be able to date with the source language and culture and at the same time s/he will maintain the knowledge of the mother tongue at the proper level. The translation always needs to be localized for the intended reader. This is a factor of great importance because it governs choice of language, presentation, the level of the language. The language needs to be elementary but not extremely simple. A competent translator will always know how to adapt his ear to the target language and will use his intuition when it comes to adjust to target language rules. 2. Factors that influence the translational competence The language and the process of thinking are not identical phenomena but they are closely linked and interrelated. If we take into account the language as a communicative process, we need to specify that what it is transmitted or communicated is a message, so it is a semantic content. The verbal expression is dependent on choosing the words and the way of phrasing. For example, the verb to say can be expressed by other verbs with an equivalent or words with an approximate meaning: to communicate, to dispose, to inform, to report, to discuss, to talk, to enlighten, to explain, to remember, to advise, to persuade and many others. Communication becomes concrete exactly by using the perfect word, appropriate for a situation. By using the verb to say instead of all the other verbs, we would express ourselves in a generic, graded way, and practically we would not manage to suggest a rich content. In such a situation, a translator will always have to select carefully the words to express th e intention and the attitude of the source language writer. A good knowledge of a foreign language is not sufficient for being a proficient translator. A translator needs to be a translator by his/her nature. There are many skills that I consider to be the most important, for example the knowledge of translation theory, the ability to analyze, compare and convert texts from one cultural domain into another, the experience in the field, the level of implication in the process of translation and many others. Trying to reach an absolute equivalent is impossible even if the translator detains great resources at the linguistic, stylistic and literary level. Psychological factors also affect the process of translation and speak about the level of translators implication when rendering the message into the target language. The translators way of expression comes and forms itself at the mental level and, based on a specific developed background affects the quality of the translation. 2.1. Psychological factors Due to our way of thinking, a man can decide upon the meaning of an object, phenomena or action connected to his environment. This is possible taking into account the new information by reference to the assimilated and systematized background knowledge. This is a part of the mental process involved in the process of translation. The understanding of a translator can be guided by several intentions or points of view. For example, a complex situation, such as translation, which implies natural, economic, geographic and cultural factors, can be understood under different angles. If a translator doesnt have the necessary knowledge s/he cannot decode the meaning of the original text. The translation has to sound as natural as possible, let alone the fact that it shouldnt contain confusing words so as to make harder the reading and understanding of the audience: †[]it should studiously avoid the translationese formal fidelity, with resulting unfaithfulness to the content and the imp act of the message.† The impossibility of making a perfect translation should not become a frustration for the translator. Of course, there will always be persons who will translate better, but maybe in a different style. Showing empathy for a certain author will positively influence his/her work and style of writing. It is unethical for a translator not to be objective inside the translation process. Nevertheless, it is obvious that s/he will think about translation as the experience in the field tells him/her how to do it. Sometimes the experience guides a translator in choosing the words or expressions. Another psychological factor, altering the meaning of the source language text and imposing, consciously or not, a personal viewpoint on the audience is not a good decision for a translator to take. The translator must try to preserve the uniqueness of a culture, its characteristics and norms. In translation, cultural psychology shows how a concept from a certain historic, social-economic or cultural background of a country or region can be found in another one but does not reflect the same thing as in the first one: Phoenix is a legend in Chinas miraculous animals, on behalf of luck, happiness and elegance, it is believed to ride Phoenix a bike can bring good luck, while in Western culture, the legendary phoenix is a phoenix, a regeneration, Resurrection and other means, so that the goods in the West is not surprising that no one is interested. Consumer psychology has implications in the way in which the consumers interests are motivated. Through a good translation, the promotional character of this type of psychology can attract clients or, on the contrary, not even stimulate them at all to buy a product. For example, Happy Cakesgiving!, a collocation taken from an advertisement about a special and tasteful cake, remembers about Thanksgiving Day, a holiday usually celebrated in the United States and Canada. The construction is very interesting and is in fact an adaptation of the holiday, underlying the importance of it for so many people. It is very hard, if not almost impossible to find an equivalent into Romanian, but a translator may always find a solution to satisfy the audience, adapting somehow the term to the local culture. Ziua deliciului may be a variant with relevance for the Romanian culture, resembling with the structure of Ziua mamei (Mothers Day), Ziua Nationala (National Day), Ziua Unirii (Unification Day) a nd so on. The aesthetic psychology works in translation at the pragmatic level. The artistic words and phrases, the combination of structures that reflect the beautiful, the elegant and graceful utterances are to be translated in the same way into the target language. This is a very hard to achieve due to many reasons. One of them is the specific syntax which makes the difference between the languages. Preserving the rhyme of a Romanian text when translating it into English is very difficult. The thematic structure of a text in Romanian is very hard to render into English. If we take the example of a section from Zamolxis, by Lucian Blaga, we will find that is impossible to preserve the elements of rhythm and rhyme. e.g. MÇÅ ½-mpÇÅ ½rtÇÅ ½Ãƒâ€¦Ã… ¸esc cu cà ¢te-un strop din tot ce creÃ…Å ¸te Ã…Å ¸i se pierde. Nimic nu mi-e strein, Ã…Å ¸i numai marea à ®mi lipseÃ…Å ¸te. I share a drop of all that waxes and wanes. Nothing is alien to me, and the sea alone is absent. Another reason for which it is very difficult to preserve the style of a specific text is the word order, which does not permit the translator to deal easily with the style of the original. In order to realize the message of the source language text, a translator will have to take decisions regarding what it should reproduce, either the forms or the ideas of the original. My belief is that a good translator will always be able to maintain the stylistic characteristics of a text and to construct structures that will transfer the propositional content and communicate the purpose intended by the source language writer. 2.2. Knowledge of translation theory In order to gain recognition in the field of translation, a bilingual speaker has to respect the norms that give him the responsibility over a text. Gideon Toury distinguishes between two groups of norms relevant for the process of translation: preliminary and operational. Preliminary norms deal with two major sets of concerns, which are usually interrelated: those regarding the existence of a definite translation strategy, and those related to the truthfulness of translation. Operational norms refer to the decisions made during the act of translation itself. A faithful translation depends on the correct selection of the appropriate method of translation. There are many people who wrongly believe that literary translation is more important than the technical one saying that the latter contains specific terms that are easy to translate whereas the first one is far more complex. Any translation is a very complex task and requires the same knowledge and responsibility from the part of the translator. One of the roles of the translator is to assist and fulfill the target readers expectations. The principle that governs this idea is that a translator should not transmit only the words to the readers, but the ideas of the source language text. The translators task becomes very difficult to achieve if s/he does not understand properly the referential meaning of a text so as to transfer it correctly to the target language. Another important role of the translator is to produce the same impression on the target readers as the author of the source language produces on his/her own readers. Another guideline stipulated by translation theory is that a translator should correct the misrepresentations, which belong to the extralinguistic reality. S/he has to find if a text has a correct syntax, if it contains stereotype phrases, fashionable general words. If the text is not well written, s/he can interfere in the original text and perform intra- and interlingual translation so as to transmit an appropriate message. A close attention must be paid to word order, false friends, common structures which become unnatural by one-to-one translation, the use of elevated usage of words and idioms or the use of infinitives, gerunds and verb-phrase. The translator should write in his own style and should not use words and expressions that produce an artificial effect on the target text. 2.2.1 Translation methods Paraphrasing Another principle related to the knowledge of translation theory is the use of paraphrase as a solution to those words which do not have an equivalent in the target language, whether they are technical, scientific, literary or institutional terms. In translation theory, to paraphrase means trying to express the signification of a word by amplifying or explaining its meaning: [†¦] is a technical term from linguistics and related disciplines, and is characterized by three specific features: (I) it is intralingual rather than interlingual, i.e., it is â€Å"another way of sayng the same thing† in the same language; (2) it is rigorous, in that there are no changes in the semantic components: no additions, no deletions, no skewing of relationships, only a different marking of the same relations between the same elements; (3) specifically as it relates to back-transformation, it is aimed at restatement at a particular level, that of the kernels. This often happens in the case of poorly written texts or it is also a method used in translating the Bible. The latter case implies many debates because paraphrasing the Bible means an interpretation that tends to be subjective due to the translators point of view regarding religion. Eugene A. Nida points out this idea in his work â€Å"Toward a science of translation†: The dangers of subjectivity in translating are directly proportionate to the potential emotional involvement of the translator in the message. For scientific prose such involvement is usually at a minimum, but in religious texts it may be rather great, since religion is concerned with the deepest and most universal value systems. In some instances it is a translators own sense of insecurity which makes it difficult for him to let the document speak for itself, and in other instances a lack of humility may prompt him to translate without consulting the opinions of those who have studied such texts more fully than himself. So, this method includes not only advantages, for the ability to transmit the message, but also disadvantages because it alters the original meaning. By using a paraphrase, the translator can render the meaning of the source language text. Since this is a way to carry in the target text the intention of the author, the paraphrase shows how s/he can remain faithful to the original. Problems about paraphrasing arise when we try to detect its level of fidelity in the process of translation. Every translator will have his/her own way of interpreting the original text and, thus, an original method of paraphrasing. Sometimes trying to eliminate the use of a paraphrase may result in weakening the text. A special attention should be paid to the substantial sense of a translated work after using the paraphrase. Functional Equivalence Functional Equivalence, also called dynamic equivalence is a method in which the translator tries to reflect the intention of the author in the source language at the expense of the original grammatical structure. Are Bureaucracies Involved In Foreign Policy Making? Are Bureaucracies Involved In Foreign Policy Making? In western democracies, especially UK and US, the role of bureaucracy in making policy is analyzed to understand its effective power in the decision making process: is bureaucracy a simple armed arm of the politics or it is completely involved in making policy? The foreign policy is not exempt from this debate and various authors spend their academic career trying to answer to this question. The aim of this essay is to investigate under what circumstances, bureaucrats are passively involved in foreign policy or when they are actively part of the process of decision making. For these reasons the essay will be divided into three parts. The first part is entitled to analyze and explain the Allisons model III (Bureaucratic Politics Model) based on the idea that the decision to follow a certain line in foreign policy is basically the result of bargaining between offices and bureaucrats in different positions of command. This theory is a masterpiece in the analysis of the impact of bureaucracy in foreign policy, consequently it is necessary to mention it. In the second part all the theoretical restrictions of the Allisons model III will be shown and as result an alternative model will be provided. In the last part, all the theoretical assumptions emerged during the analysis will be tested according to two cases study: in one hand the relationship between US bureaucracy and Kis singer, former National Security Advisor (NSA) and head of the Department of State in the US administration; in the other hand the US Navy and the study of its internal bureaucracy. By definition, bureaus are non-profit organizations that are financed, at least in part, from a periodic appropriation or grant bureaus specialise in providing goods and services that some people prefer in larger amounts than would be supplied by their sale at a per-unit rate (Niskanen 1973: 8). They are usually financed by a government department which is financed by tax revenues. The term bureaucrat will be used to describe any full-time employee of a bureau nearly synonymous with civil servant [it] will be used to define the senior official of any bureau with a separate identifiable budgetthese bureaucrats may be either career officials or directly appointed by the elected executive (Niskanen 1973: 11). * * * The Allisons model called Bureaucratic Politics analyses the foreign policy decision making process. The core of the Allisons model III is easily summarized in his words: bargaining along regularized channels among players positioned hierarchically within the government (Allison 1969: 707). The scheme predicts no unitary actor but rather many players focused on different problems. The governmental apparatus is led by political leaders who need to decentralize some of their functions. This process guarantees discretion on the hands of the subject in charge of that function. In foreign policy, different players opt for different solutions because of their perceptions and priorities. In doing so, decisions are the result of the triumph of one group over others. The axioms produced by the Allisons model III are many: governmental actions are the result of compromise and competition among public officials; players are men in jobs (Allison 1969: 709) that means their tasks and obligations are related to the position they hold at that moment; within bureaucratic organization usually the bargaining is driven by parochialism, that influences internal priorities, perceptions and issues; each player has a reasonable probability of success according to the effective power in his/her hands; each decision has critical consequences not only for the strategic problem but for each players organizational, reputational, and personal stakes (Allison 1969: 710). Moreover, bargaining is possible only in certain channels and its results are not the consequence of individual rationality but rather the sum of different intentions (Allison 1969). Through the study of the UK and US foreign policy decision making process, it is possible to identify those elements present in Allisons model III in order to understand how they are implemented in practice. Formal responsibility for the conduct of British foreign policy rests with the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and under him the FCO (Wallace 1975: 21). This vision would be limited until we do not recognise also the importance of overseas missions home departments, the Prime Minister, the Cabinet, others ministries and officials. In fact, in UK foreign affairs if the policy-making process in lower levels is in the hands of the Foreign Office, for what we consider high policy we need to add the interference of other member of government (with their personal relationships and prejudices) and small group of interests. With the exception of situations of emergency, the decisions are taken into formal channels (e.g. intergovernmental relations, negotiation of treaties and representation abroad) (Wallace 1975). Daily foreign policy making process is, not only an activity related to the Secretary of State, but also to senior officials in important delegations, such as UN, NATO and UE, who effectively become part of the process of policy-making in their areas (Wallace 1975: 36). Each home department has the right to have one or more civilian attachà ©(s) in overseas missions because of their significant international interests. Traditionally, the most important ones are from the Treasury and the Ministry of Defence (MoD). FCO, Treasury and MoD had responsibilities overlapped with significant areas of high policy as well as low-level external relations (Wallace 1975: 40). Therefore, one of the roles of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet is to pull together different instances and to coordinate the governmental action through the Home Civil Service, a permanent bureaucracy of Crown employees that support the national interest with the instances from private industries and public departments. O fficials do their best to ensure that they know their ministers mind and to take his assumed preferences into account in formulating and implementing policy (Wallace 1975: 51). They are considered the protectors of the public interest and they have a particular relationship with the politicians: [i]It is very difficult to assess the relative impact of official advice and political direction on external policyof course there is a difference in outlook between the official, whose professional career is foreign policy, and the minister, who must be more concerned with domestic politics, his constituency, his standing in the party, and the next election (Wallace 1975: 52). However, the relationship between the politicians and their officials in some cases are affected by personal factors more than formal structures. Consequently, foreign policy seems to be driven not only by the national interest but also by personal interest, energy, experience, expertise, friendships, personality and preferences. Different opinions and different attitudes are reflected into different views within the government. The making of US foreign policy is delegated to different actors. The President, the NSA with the National Security Council (NSC), the State Department, the Department of Defence (DoD) and the Intelligence Community (IC) are all of them directly or in part involved in the process of foreign policy decision making. The NSAs organizational origins derive from the NSC system set up in 1947, and from the putative need for Presidents to have on their staff a manager and coordinator for foreign policy (Dumbrell 1997: 89). In fact, [t]The NSA and NSC staff tend to be seen as flexible, responsive, relatively free of bureaucratic baggage, and sensitive to the Presidents political and electoral interest (Dumbrell 1997: 92). The Secretary of State is the official governmental responsible for the making of foreign policy. Although its mandate is clear, it is progressively increasing the tendency for inter-departmental networks of influence to cut traditional institutional linkages. As pointed ou t by Dumbrell (1997: 97), for example, during the Cold war a militarization of diplomacy and a consequent endemic tension between the Pentagon and the State Department monopolized the policy-making process. [T]the CIA was an institutional embodiment of the trend towards non-accountable, subterranean policy-making and security operation (Dumbrell 1997: 102). Therefore, the CIA has to be considered a powerful instrument of foreign policy in the hands of the White House. * * * The Bureaucratic Politics Model is not exempt by critics. Krasner (1972) claims that the Allisons model III is ambiguous and dangerous because in western democracies elected officials are responsible for the acts of government, not public ones. Merits and demerits of the governmental structure because of the implementation of weak policies or wrong ones is direct responsibility of the elected leader, and not of bureaucrats. Moreover, the model lacks in describing how policy is made because it does not consider adequately the figure of the President especially in the US system. Only the President has the power of the ultimate decisions, to choose most of the important players, to set the rules. That explains why even if his/her attention is absent, bureaus are sensitive to his/her values. Neither organizational necessity nor bureaucratic interests are the fundamental determinants of policy. The limits imposed by standard operating procedures as well as the direction of policy are a function of the values of decision-makers. The President creates much of the bureaucratic environment which surrounds him through his selection of bureau chiefs, determination of action-channels, and statutory powers (Krasner 1972: 169). Another controversial point in the Allisons model is that it does not consider the possibility of failure, that is at the end of the process of bargaining the players could not take any decision. According to Krasner (1972) this outcome not only is common but also it reflects confusion over values which afflicts the society and the political elite. In the Bureaucratic Politics Model, this sort of confusion is not allowed because each player is certain about its priorities and parochial interests. Bendor and Hammond (1992) indicate at least four weaknesses in the Allisons model III: the bargaining, the hierarchy, the ambiguity of the assumptions and the extreme complexity. The model suffers when it assumes that the bureaucratic actors have conflicting goals; often what is conflicting within a governmental organization is the beliefs about how to achieve those goals. Furthermore, it is not understandable why the President with all his/her powers has to bargaining with other officials and in doing so the model suffers in understanding the sense of hierarchy within the Executive Branch. The prepositions in the model often are claimed without scientific values, without data support and they seem to be generalizations without proof. After all, the complexity of the model is given by the amount of information necessary to verify it and the number of variables to consider. Welch (1992) identifies the impossibility to test the Allisons model III as one of the main problem of the model itself. What is more, he is aware of two contradictions. The first one is related to the importance of the positions held by the players. According to Allison the position determines the preferences but at the same time the priorities in the mind of the actors are also dictated by their experiences and perceptions. The second one is related to how bureaucratic positions can influence the decision making process. According to Allison the position determines the power of the player but at the same time one fundamental aspect in the bargaining process is the personality. Brady and Kegley (1977) criticize the literature about bureaucratic politics considered by Allison in his assumptions. Generalizations and lack of evidence seem to overemphasize the role of bureaucratic influences. In fact, bureaucratic influences should be explained as a component of the foreign policy decision making process and not the most important one. The way in which bureaucracy influence decisions is only in part related to parochial interests, as shown in situations of crisis, when each organizational position and the consequent process of bargaining is led by the common interest of combating or avoiding a threat for all the players. Not only critics to Allison are necessary, but also the examination of an alternative model can help us in understanding strengths and weaknesses of that model. Aberbach, Putnam and Rockman (1981) created a new model to explain the relationship between politicians and bureaucrats. In this case, the sophisticated model is not simply bureaucratic centric like the Allison one, but it is focused on four different outcomes called images. The first one is the simplest: politicians make policy; civil servants administer. Politicians make decisions; bureaucrats merely implement them (Aberbach, Putnam and Rockman 1981: 4). Public officials are indispensable servants because of their competences and expertise. For Weber, this is the ideal relationship because the institutional functions of politics and administration are separated, but at the same time it is highly improbable because every governmental decision has political considerations and consequences. Authority, simplicity of decision and political supremacy are the potentiality of this image. The second outcome assumes that both politicians and civil servants participate in making policy, but that make distinctive contributions. Civil servants bring facts and knowledge; politicians, interests and values (Aberbach, Putnam and Rockman 1981: 6). Division of labour and rationality are the main characteristics of this model. According to the third image both bureaucrats and politicians engage in policymaking, and both are concerned with politics whereas politicians articulate broad, diffuse interests of unorganized individuals, bureaucrats mediate narrow, focused interests of organized clienteles (Aberbach, Putnam and Rockman 1981: 9). In this case, it is unclear if the initiative comes from the bureaucrats or the interest groups. In any case, the more problematic issues cannot be addresses only by one part, however, during emergencies, the policymaking role of the civil service is irrelevant. In the last outcome, the two roles have been converging perhaps reflecting, as some have argued, a politicization of the bureaucracy and a bureaucratization of politics (Aberbach, Putnam and Rockman 1981: 16). This image has been associated with the expansion of executive agencies like the Cabinet in UK, the Chancellery in Germany or the White House in US, which have absorbed several political administrators. Bureaucrats and politicians are policymakers: the bureaucrats because indirectly manage the governmental apparatus by the implementation of decisions; the politicians are involved directly in policymaking activities. * * * The first case study demonstrates the failure of the Allisons model in terms of bargaining and it confirm some critics present in Bendor, Hammon, Aberbach, Putnam and Rockman. The centurys most thoughtful and practically effective critic of bureaucracy in foreign affairs, Kissinger had no taste or skill to do more than suppress it (Strong 1987: 75). Kissinger developed critics to the bureaucratic system because he was convinced that the only way to solve US bureaucratic problems was in decisions and actions exercised by politicians. When he was appointed NSA during the Nixon administration, they both preferred a system of foreign policymaking that would be centralized in the White House and dominated by the president and his personal advisers (Strong 1987: 57). He modelled a new foreign policy organization, where a series of interdepartmental committees report to the Review Group (RG), chaired by the NSA who will present the topics to the President and the NSC. In such a system, the NSA was in the position to exercise all its influence over information and options and to manipulate the decision making process. He intended the bureaucracy as a source of information about important international issues. He wanted the maximum realm for personal choice in a policymaking environment where circumstance and bureaucratic practice almost always tended to reduce the opportunities for leaders to act (Strong 1987: 61). The objective was to establish White House control over the making of foreign policy. This model of foreign policy making process presents some problems: abuse of power by the NSA, no transparency, it is decision centric, it is run by small stuff which means limited capacity and probable superficiality in dealing with international issues. Scarce expertise, information manipulated, jealousies and ambitions can also affect the political considerations. Also the second case study recommends the failure of the Allisons model in terms of bargaining and it confirms some critics present in Welch, Brady and Kagley. In this case the outcomes cannot be predicted on the basis of parochial interests and the distribution of bureaucratic power (Rhodes 1994: 3). The US Navy is considered one of the most traditionalist military corps of the US. For this reason, internal and external observers have long argued that bureaucratic parochialism within the navy has strongly influenced national decisions over national force posture that is, decisions regarding kinds and levels of naval forces (Rhodes 1994: 3). The main Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) is the highest uniformed officer and he is responsible for ruling inter-departmental competition for funds. In fact, all the three components, that is aviators, submariners and surface ship members try to drive the navys force posture. The CNO with his personal experience and bureaucratic baggage is supposed to reflect his membership to one of the components, while he is ruling. According to Allison, in fact, he has a substantial interest in force the posture of Navy in favour of his unit. Analyzing the data available in the forty years between 1950 and 1990 when the Navy had 12 CNOs is possible to deduce that the identity and objectives of the principal bureaucratic interest groups, inside and outside the navy, have remain constant (Rhodes 1994: 21). This bureaucratic model suggest that state behaviour is far from being based on competing interests. The assumption where you stand depends on where you sit failed in front of the evidence that what they think is independent of where they sit. The outcome suggest that instead of parochial interests we should talk about parochial sets of ideas. Except for moment of crisis, the internal trends of a bureaucratic organization tend to remain unaltered across time despite changes in the decision makers environment. Given the weight of evidence that parochial loyalties has been dominant in determining naval force posture, the findings from this case give us considerable reason for scepticism about any generalized claims that bureaucratic politics are critical in shaping state behaviour (Rhodes 2004: 40). According to the cases study presented, the Allisons model III and its attempt to explain state behaviour is suitable for routine and standard decisions. It lacks in predicting outcomes because its strength is describing the intra organizational bargaining. As mentioned by Rourke (1972), the influence of bureaucracy on the foreign policy decision making is not so relevant as Allison tries to demonstrate. Bureaucracy can adopt policies in its interest but when it is in charge to translate political decisions into actions, it is merely following the intentions of the decision-maker. However, it has limited possibilities to influence presidential decisions because political players can easily reduce its power to a subordinate status. Smith and Clarke (1985), focus on the aspect of policy implementation: they affirm that in the process of foreign policy decision making it is important how a certain decision has been implemented, not only how it was taken. The Bureaucratic Politics model tends to have an implicit notion of implementation because it takes it for granted, and this is an unforgivable mistake because usually decisions are ambiguous, therefore all the power is in the hands of those subjects involved in the execution. Only the bureaucracy has the power to control and monitor the outcomes. For all these reasons, in analyzing bureaucracy behaviour, academics should focus on the implementation because it explains the relationships between the decision making process and the results. The Allisons model III (Allison and Halperin 1972) argue that, through the bargaining, bureaucrats are protagonists of the decision making process in foreign policy. Looking at the model in depth, it has been demonstrated how the model can basically give us a dimension of the governmental interactions between hierarchies but it cannot anticipate the outcome. Certainly, it describes the rationality in achieving parochial interests but the results cannot be predetermined a priori. * * * Bureaucrats are servants and masters in the foreign policy making process and during the phase of implementation because even if they know intentions, structures and process of bargaining, it is impossible to foresee the final outcome. Definitively, their behaviour is goal oriented but it is impossible to calculate all the information and variables necessary to achieve that goal. For these reasons, the Bureaucratic Politics model cannot assure definite results. With no doubt, the Aberbach, Putnam and Rockmans model is more appropriate in describing the decision making process, but it is not specific for foreign policy outcomes. The power of bureaucratic organizations over foreign affairs has been exaggerated even if they have the power to channel decisions into practical policies and they are increasingly involved in the administration of the foreign affairs. There is no doubt about the pulling and hauling in governmental debates but it does not affect the presidential choice. If there is no direction or control from the top, then obviously a bureaucratic paradigm is essential for analyzing the foreign policy process; then, decisions are truly the resultants of governmental mechanics. But if there is central control from the top, then the mechanics make no difference.